The Bureau of
Ocean Energy Management (BOEM), part of the U.S. Department of the Interior,
assesses and manages marine minerals offshore the U.S. The U.S. Geological
Survey and other marine minerals initiatives and research groups assess global
marine mineral resources. The U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration’s (NOAA) Ocean Exploration program has mapped 3.5 million square
kilometers of seafloor and has collected thousands of samples from the
seafloor. Marine minerals are often referred to as seabed minerals or offshore
critical minerals.
Types of Marine Minerals and Where They Are Found
Deep-sea marine minerals are
of three basic types:
1) Seabed
massive sulfides (SMS), also called polymetallic sulfides – these
contain copper, iron, zinc, silver, and gold. These deposits are found at or
near tectonic plate boundaries, including along the mid-ocean ridges and active
volcanic arcs. They are also associated with hydrothermal vents, known as
“black smokers.” They are found in the deep ocean under 2000 to 3000 meters of
water. These ores will have some waste and tailings.
2) Cobalt-rich
crusts, also called ferromanganese crusts, or just crusts, are
formed as minerals precipitate from seawater. These deposits contain iron,
manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper, and rare earth elements. They form as
coatings on bare rock, typically on topographic highs on the seafloor. They
appear on the tops and sides of seamounts (mountains under the sea), usually in
water depths of 1500-2500 meters. Crusts have very little waste and tailings.
3) Polymetallic
nodules, also called manganese nodules or just nodules, are found
on the seafloor's abyssal plains. Their occurrence is more widespread. They
contain manganese, iron, copper, nickel, cobalt, lead, and zinc, and lesser
concentrations of molybdenum, lithium, titanium, niobium, and other minerals.
They are typically found in water depths of 3500-6500 meters. They occur in
distal parts of the ocean where there is no terrigenous sediment being
deposited. They vary in size from micro-nodules to about 20 cm, the common size
being two to eight centimeters. Nodules have very little waste and tailings.
The BOEM’s Marine Minerals
Program (MMP) leases sand, gravel, and/or shell resources from federal waters
within the outer continental shelf. Some of these are other types of marine
resources that occur nearer to shore than the marine minerals listed above.
Dredged sand and gravel are used for beach replenishment and to address coastal
erosion.
Global marine mineral occurrences are shown below.
Types of Nearshore Marine Mineral Resources
1) Heavy
mineral sands. These include sedimentary placer deposits of heavy minerals
that occur within sand, silt, and clay, such as ilmenite, magnetite, rutile,
monazite, and zircon. They typically occur in waters less than 200 meters deep.
2) Phosphorites. These are derived from calcium-phosphate-rich rock composed of invertebrate shells, vertebrate bones, and at upwellings near continental shelves and margins. They include deposits of carbonate-fluorapatite and rare earth minerals.
The Immature but Growing Marine Minerals Market
In 2025, about twelve
publicly traded companies are working in marine minerals, and the estimated
global market value was about $18 billion.
A market forecast suggests
the market size will increase to $36.7 billion by 2036.
Marine Minerals Equipment and Infrastructure
Company GSR has built a
nodule-collecting vehicle called Patania II. The vehicle is on tracks like a
bulldozer. It can operate 4500 m below the sea surface and has robotic
technology and monitoring systems. It communicates directly with the surface
via a 5km cable known as the umbilical. According to GSR:
“Patania II is equipped with four vacuum cleaner style
collectors that use a jet water pump system to raise the nodules slightly off
the seabed before sucking them into the collector tank. Here they are cleaned
to separate them from sediment, which is returned to the seafloor. In the
future, nodules will be brought up a riser pipe to the surface vessel where
they will be transferred to another vessel and transported to land for
processing.”
Marine minerals collection
for assessments and resource estimates involves the use of autonomous
underwater vehicles (AUVs).
In April 2026, American Ocean
Minerals deployed its deep-sea mining research vessel the Anuanua Moana. It is
focusing on U.S. regulated waters.
There are operational challenges, including high costs, gaps in mapping, environmental mitigation, and the usual maritime logistics.
Marine Minerals Education, Training, Professional
Societies, and Conferences
The International Seabed
Authority (ISA) has teamed up with China to develop a joint training center.
The goal is to strengthen international scientific collaboration in support of
the ISA Marine Scientific Research Action Plan and the United Nations Decade of
Ocean Science for Sustainable Development. The U.S. is not a member of the ISA
since it has not ratified the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS),
under which the ISA sits. Thus, the U.S. is not an ISA member and is not bound
by its processes.
The International Marine
Minerals Society (IMMS) holds an annual meeting known as the Underwater
Minerals Conference (UMC).
Company Deep Sea Minerals
Corp. participated in the 2026 Offshore Technology Conference, which is mostly
a conference for offshore oil & gas exploration. They acknowledge that as
marine mineral exploration proceeds, they will require the services of the
offshore service industry. The U.S. Department of the Interior also
participated in the conference, rolling out their plans for marine minerals
lease sales on the exhibit floor.
Mapping, Resource Assessment Projects, and
Licensing/Permitting
Marine minerals continue to
be mapped, and resource estimates continue to be refined. The USGS and NOAA have
an ongoing American Samoa Abyssal Mapping project. As of mid-2026:
“Leg one preceded this effort and collected ship-based
acoustic data. Leg two collected autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) data and
began before, continued contemporaneously, and finished subsequently to leg
three.”
They also continue to map around the world.
There are companies working
on getting licenses and permits to explore.
“In March 2025, Canadian mining company The Metals
Company announced that, through a U.S. subsidiary (The Metals Company USA LLC),
it had begun the process of applying for licenses and permits under the U.S.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's mining code, known as the
Deep Seabed Hard Mineral Resources Act of 1980.”
Since the U.S. is not an ISA
member, it can circumvent the ISA permitting process and likely fast-track some
mining developments.
Some countries have supported
moratoriums on marine mineral mining pending further environmental
investigations. In the past, Germany, Canada, France, and other EU countries
have supported moratoriums. Portugal passed a law banning the practice in its
waters for 25 years.
Company Odyssey Marine
Exploration Inc. announced in November 2025 that it had submitted
an Unsolicited Request for Lease Sale of Marine Mineral Exploration and
Development Rights to the U.S. Department of the Interior’s (DOI) Bureau of
Ocean Energy Management (BOEM). According to Seeking Alpha:
“The proposed lease area, located within the U.S. outer
continental shelf (OCS) off the Mid-Atlantic coast, is highly prospective for
heavy mineral sands rich in titanium, zirconium, rare earth elements (REEs),
and phosphate.”
The Metals Co (TMC) reported
in May that its federal approval process was going well.
“U.S. regulators have found its consolidated application
for deep seabed mineral exploration and commercial recovery to be fully
compliant with federal requirements, marking a key step toward potential
approval.”
“The company said it expects the regulatory process,
including environmental review, to conclude by the end of first-quarter 2027.”
As noted, American Ocean
Minerals deployed its ship, the Anuanua Moana. According to Canadian Mining
Journal:
“American Ocean Minerals is building a portfolio across
the Cook Islands’ exclusive economic zone and US-regulated international
waters, including the Clarion-Clipperton Zone and the Penrhyn Basin, with
interests in two licensed exploration projects in the Pacific.”
The U.S. has negotiated agreements for its offshore mineral acreage.
Environmental Considerations
Oceans can be environmentally
sensitive as many kinds of ecosystems and biological communities are present.
Potential environmental impacts include species losses, disruption to
ecosystems, and release of contaminants into ocean waters. The generation of
sediment plumes and ocean noise are also potential impacts. According to the
World Economic Forum:
“Sediments from mineral extraction and processing could
clog and harm organisms’ respiratory, olfactory and feeding organs and tissues,
and affect their behaviour, reproduction and survival. Suspended sediments made
from mineralized seabed materials could release dissolved metals into ocean
waters. Noise from extractive machinery could place physiological stress on
biota, disrupt their behaviour and lead to effects such as geographic migration
and changes in community composition.”
They also emphasize that
assessment of the potential environmental impacts of marine minerals mining is
ongoing.
“The potential environmental effects of deep sea mineral
exploitation are some of the most important considerations within a
decision-making system for mineral stewardship. They are also the focus of a
significant amount of current research. To assess the pace at which humankind’s
knowledge of the environmental aspects of deepsea mineral exploitation will
grow, the Ocean Science Expert Panel was consulted on the time required for
scientific consensus to be reached in key knowledge areas.”
“Significant knowledge, participation and consensus gaps
impede sound decision-making for deep-sea mineral stewardship – their closure
should be accelerated.”
Companies are in the process
of collecting ecological baseline data in order to inform future operations.
American Ocean Mineral Company (AOMC) is one company doing just that. According
to Canadian Mining Journal:
“AOMC said environmental monitoring remains a key
component of the company’s approach and said it has spent more than three years
collecting baseline ecological data to support future mining license
applications, including environmental impact assessments and feasibility
studies.”
References:
Types
of Marine Minerals. GCE Ocean Technology. Types of Marine Minerals | GCE Ocean
Technology
Marine
Minerals: Overseeing the Responsible Use and Development of Marine Minerals on
the OCS. Preserving and Restoring the Nation’s Coast. U.S. Dept. of Interior.
Bureau of Ocean Energy Management. Marine Minerals | Bureau of Ocean Energy Management
Types
of Relevant Marine Mineral Deposits. U.S. Dept. of Interior. Bureau of
Ocean Energy Management. Types of Relevant Marine Mineral
Deposits | Bureau of Ocean Energy Management
Publicly
Traded Deep Sea Mining Companies: 2025 Guide. Farmonaut. Publicly Traded Deep Sea Mining
Companies: A Comprehensive Guide
Marine
Mineral Market: Global Industry Analysis and Opportunity Assessment, 2036
(Report Description/Abstract/Sample). Marine Mineral Market Size, Share
& Forecast to 2036 | FMI
The
Global Landscape of Mineral Resources: Abundance, Utilization, and Future
Prospect. Andrew Smith. Medium. September 20, 2024. The Global Landscape of Mineral
Resources: Abundance, Utilization, and Future Prospect. | by Andrew Smith |
Medium
Harnessing
Ocean Minerals: Exploring the deep to source the metals we need for the future
we want. Global Sea Mineral Resources (GSR). (Website). Home - GSR
Introduction
to Marine Mineral Resources. What are Marine Mineral Resources? GEOMAR
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Global
Seabed Mineral Resources. U.S. Geological Survey. (Dashboard). Global Seabed Mineral Resources |
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Marine
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Ocean Exploration: Advancing Understanding of Marine Critical Minerals.
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Understanding of Marine Critical Minerals - NOAA Ocean Exploration
Ocean
Mining Intel. (Website). Latest - Ocean Mining Intel
USGS
Publishes Samoa Basin Expedition Report Detailing Deep-Sea Mineral and Sediment
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Report Detailing Deep-Sea Mineral And Sediment Box Coring Results - Ocean
Mining Intel
Deep-sea
mining: What you need to know. World Economic Forum. September 12, 2025. What are the pros and cons of
deep-sea mining? | World Economic Forum
Decision-Making
on Deep-Sea Mineral Stewardship: A Supply Chain Perspective. WHITE PAPER. APRIL
2022. WEF_Decision_Making_on_Deep_Sea_Mineral_Stewardship_2022.pdf
What
We Know About Deep-Sea Mining — and What We Don’t: Some countries and companies
hope to mine the ocean's floor for valuable critical minerals. But this may
pose serious risks for marine life and the planet. Oliver Ashford, Jonathan
Baines, Melissa Barbanell and Ke Wang. World Resources Institute. July 23, 2025.
What We Know About Deep-Sea Mining
and What We Don’t | World Resources Institute
Odyssey
Marine Exploration Files U.S. Offshore Critical Minerals Lease Sale Request to
Advance America’s Resource Security. (Great Lakes Dredge & Dock Corporation
(GLDD), OMEX). Seeking Alpha. November 7, 2025. Odyssey Marine Exploration Files U.S.
Offshore Critical Minerals Lease Sale Request to Advance America’s Resource
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Deep Sea
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TMC
Seabed Mining Application Meets US Federal Requirements. Marine Link. May 1,
2026. TMC Seabed Mining Application Meets
US Federal
American
Ocean Minerals deploys deep-sea mining research vessel. The company is building
a portfolio across the Cook Islands’ exclusive economic zone and US-regulated
international waters, including the Clarion-Clipperton Zone and the Penrhyn
Basin. Staff Writer, Canadian Mining Journal.
April 30, 2026. American Ocean Minerals deploys
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Marine Exploration. (Website). Odyssey Marine Exploration
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