Graphite One’s Graphite Creek High-Grade Graphite
Deposit
Vancouver,
Canada-based company Graphite One is developing one of the world’s largest high-grade
graphite mining projects on the Seward Peninsula in Alaska. This project is
expected to jump-start U.S. domestic production, processing, and manufacturing of
graphite, mainly for anodes of EV batteries, described by the company as follows:
“The Project is proposed as a vertically integrated enterprise to mine,
process and manufacture anode materials primarily for the lithium‐ion electric
vehicle battery market.” The plan is to process the graphite at a facility adjacent
to the mine, then to ship the processed product to a battery anode manufacturing
facility to be built in Washington state. The company plans to make a production
decision based on the feasibility study it began in 2022. The feasibility
included an expanded drilling program to test ore quality with results
indicating the presence of high-grade coated spherical graphite. Another goal
of the company is to develop a complete U.S. based supply chain to facilitate battery
anode production. The U.S. is currently 100% dependent on imports for graphite,
so this would be a first for domestic graphite. Currently, China supplies on
third of U.S. graphite. The drilling program was very successful: “The
results – 52 graphite intercepts over 52 holes – confirm our confidence that
Graphite Creek is truly a generational resource of strategic value to the
United States…” In July, Graphite One was awarded a Defense Production Act
grant potentially totaling $75 million.
In 2020, the U.S. imported 41,000 tons of graphite. The IEA
forecasted a 25-fold increase in global demand by 2040. Graphite One has bold
plans to supply the U.S. with graphite: “…to build out a
vertically-integrated U.S. based supply chain capable of delivering 41,850
tonnes of battery-grade CSG, and 13,500 tonnes of additional advanced graphite
materials annually.” Thus, it appears that Graphite One’s goal is to supply
the U.S. with most or all of its mined graphite.
Graphite Creek Geology
According to the
USGS, Graphite Creek is the largest flake graphite deposit in the U.S. and one
of the largest in the world. Graphite One identified a 16-kilometer geophysical
anomaly and the 2023 exploratory drilling confirmed and increased their
resource estimates. USGS describes Graphite Creek as an unusual fake graphite deposit.
Middle Cretaceous gneiss domes host the deposits. As in many metamorphic rock areas,
the deposit occurs near a suture zone where micro-continents collided, in this
case during an earlier Jurassic-aged ocean-closing event where an island arc
system overrode a passive continental margin.
The report is very detailed, complex, and not easy to
understand, even by a geologist with some knowledge of metamorphism. The
researchers put fourth four different possible scenarios for the origins of the
deposit, as follows: “Current models of crystalline graphite deposits allow
for multiple scenarios to potentially explain aspects of high-grade flake
graphite enrichment at Graphite Creek. Incorporation of garnet porphyroblasts
within the massive graphite lenses and foliation of semi-massive graphite
together with peak graphite temperatures of at least 640 °C suggest that lens
development took place during syn- to late-peak metamorphism (Fig. 11). This
metamorphism happened between ca. 96 and 92 Ma based on the monazite and titanite
data from this study (Fig. 6) and Amato et al. (1994). All scenarios therefore
invoke graphite concentration via high-temperature metamorphic processes.
Scenario 1 is simple in situ metamorphism of carbonaceous shale. Scenario 2
involves devolatilization of calcareous rocks to remove CO2 and form
Ca-silicate mineral assemblages such as plagioclase, pyroxene, and scapolite.
Scenario 3 involves addition of carbon to the rock via hydrothermal fluids,
such as for lump and chip vein deposits. Scenario 4 is removal of silicate
minerals from carbonaceous shale by anatexis.”
The paper’s conclusions offer a little more in terms of a
basic explanation that I, as a geologist, can better understand:
“The unique flake graphite deposit at Graphite Creek,
Alaska, formed due to a combination of factors. Permissive depositional
environments for a suitable protolith are biologically productive, restricted,
settings. Permissive post-depositional tectonic environments to produce this
type of flake graphite mineralization are characterized by high-temperature
metamorphism associated with exhumation. Thick intervals of favorable,
fine-grained carbonaceous shale protoliths were subjected to at least one
episode of high-temperature metamorphism and anatectic melting associated with
pluton emplacement, regional extension, and tectonic exhumation on the Seward
Peninsula. Strain partitioning and shearing in the northern Kigluaik Mountains,
represented by compressed isograds, likely provided conduits for fluid/melt
flow and facilitated anatexis, melt loss, and graphite enrichment.”
They note that anatexis has previously only been scarcely associated
with flake graphite deposits, so this merits further investigation. Anatexis refers
to the partial melting of rock, which may have led to further graphite enrichment. As noted, graphite is a product of carbon-rich rocks being subjected to high-temperature metamorphism. With higher pressures, the end product would be diamond, which occurs rarely in nature. Below is a theoretical phase diagram.
Source: Wikipedia
Natural Graphite Properties, Uses, and Demand
Graphite is a
crystalline stable form of carbon. It consists of stacked layers of graphene
that have a hexagonal crystal structure. It is used in pencils, as a lubricant,
as an electrode, and in many other applications. Natural graphite occurs in crystalline
form as small flakes in plate-like particles. Amorphous graphite is a form with
smaller flakes. Lump graphite occurs as mineral veins filling fractures as a
needle-like fibrous crystals. Graphite occurs in metamorphic rocks (such as
gneiss) subjected to high temperatures and pressures. A theoretically predicted
phase diagram for stable carbon is shown below. Higher pressures are required
for diamond to form. Graphite properties include a high degree of anisotropy (directional
property variations), high thermal stability, thermal conductivity, and
electrical conductivity.
The layers of graphite are called graphenes. According to Wikipedia: “The two forms of graphite are
called alpha (hexagonal) and beta (rhombohedral). Their properties are very
similar. They differ in terms of the stacking of the graphene layers: stacking
in alpha graphite is ABA, as opposed to ABC stacking in energetically less
stable and less common beta graphite. The alpha form can be converted to the
beta form through mechanical treatment and the beta form reverts to the alpha
form when it is heated above 1300 °C.”
Source: Wikipedia
Research and Markets
describe graphite, its uses, and demand as follows: “Graphite is found in
the form of black crystal flakes and masses. Important properties include high
electrical conductivity, thermal stability, and slipperiness, i.e., also known
as lubricity. These properties make it highly suitable for several industrial
applications, including lubricants, steelmaking, refractories, electronics, and
lubricants. The use of graphite in emerging applications such as fuel cells and
light-weight high-strength composite applications is predicted to surge drive
the demand for graphite in the forecast period. The growing adoption of EVs
further fuels market growth during the forecast period.”
“China, India, and Brazil are the top three major
graphite producers in the world. During the forecast period, the steel industry
is the major end-user of the global graphite market.”
Spherical graphite is an intermediate product between natural
graphite and fully processed graphite. Further processing to battery-grade is
needed. Batteries are expected to remain the fastest growing market segment for
graphite. Demand for synthetic graphite is expected to remain strong in
addition to natural graphite.
Natural Graphite vs. Synthetic Graphite
In addition to
mined graphite, graphite can also be produced synthetically from a variety of
carbon feedstocks including natural gas, petroleum, petroleum coke, coal, biomass,
and even used tires. Synthetic production has also been explored as a byproduct
of captured CO2 as a method of carbon utilization, with one company currently
producing carbon black, from which graphite can be made. Carbon black is used in
the manufacture of tires and the process can be reversed so that the carbon
black can be recovered from used up tires and be made into synthetic graphite
for battery anodes. A Chilean company is seeking to do just that as part of a
circular economy approach. Synthetic graphite can be made purer than natural graphite.
It is used in specific industries. Natural graphite must be processed to
improve quality and purity. This processing includes milling, flotation,
purification, and micronization, allowing for removing impurities and adjusting
particle size and distribution. An article from Investing News Network summarizes
the differences between synthetic and natural graphite:
“Synthetic graphite is purer in terms of carbon content
and tends to behave more predictably, which is why it has found a niche in
solar energy storage and electric arc furnaces. Synthetic graphite can be
significantly more expensive to produce than natural graphite, as the process
is fairly energy intensive. In fact, the cost can be double or triple the
standard price for natural graphite.”
“Restrictively high prices and specific use cases for
synthetic graphite mean that it doesn’t often compete with natural graphite.”
Highly ordered pyrolytic graphite is a synthetic graphite
with a highly ordered crystal structure. It is used in x-ray optics and
scanning probe microscopy. Electrodes for electric-arc furnaces that melt steel
and iron are made primarily from synthetic graphite using petroleum coke as a
feedstock. Graphite blocks for energy storage are made from synthetic graphite
using a slightly different form of petroleum coke than that used for electric-arc
furnaces. Primary synthetic graphite is a graphite powder that is expensive to
produce. It is used for high-end lithium batteries. Secondary synthetic
graphite is a byproduct that occurs as a powder and can be competitive with
natural graphite in some uses, such as brake linings and lubricants. The global
synthetic graphite market was at $2.37 billion in 2022 and is forecasted to
grow to $3.93 billion in 2031. Thus, it appears that synthetic graphite makes
up about one third of the global graphite market with natural graphite making
up two-thirds. A handful of major companies dominate synthetic graphite production.
Carbon Nanomaterials (made from graphite or from
captured carbon)
Carbon
nanomaterials are produced from graphite and other carbon sources. Sigma
Aldritch notes: “Carbon nanomaterials are an extensive family of carbon
allotropes, consisting of 0-dimensional fullerenes and quantum dots,
1-dimensional carbon nanotubes (CNTs), 2-dimensional graphene, and
3-dimensional nanodiamonds and nanohorns. Carbon nanomaterials are used in a
broad range of applications due to their unique physical and chemical
properties.” Some materials researchers think that with manufacturing investment
these materials can one day compete favorably with metals and be able to
replace metals in many applications. They are lighter than metals so that can boost
the energy efficiency of some of the products they would be used for. They have
also been proposed as a possible replacement for plastics. Carbon nanotubes
share many of the features of polymer plastics. The hurdle in both cases,
replacing metals or plastics, is cost. Rice University carbon materials expert
Matteo Pasquali noted in 2021: “We can make nanotube fibers and composites
that outperform metals, but we need to scale manufacturing processes
efficiently so that these materials can compete with metals on price. The
key, he notes, is to make carbon nanomaterials plentiful. Polymer plastics and
carbon nanomaterials both fix carbon. Pasquali also notes that the rapid development
of the plastics industry over a few decades was partially the result of the
high availability of light hydrocarbons that were byproducts of refining. In a
similar way, if we can improve the economics considerably, we can use captured
carbon as a feedstock for a carbon nanomaterials revolution, he suggests. As
mentioned above, there is a company making carbon black from carbon captured
from making hydrogen through methane pyrolysis. That company is Monolith Materials,
and their project is in Nebraska. It is an example of carbon utilization.
China’s Graphite Export Restrictions
On October 20,
2023, China made the following announcement restricting the export of certain
grades of graphite. This is thought to be a tit-for-tat response to the U.S.
restricting the sale of certain computer chips to China:
BEIJING, Oct. 20 (Xinhua) -- The Chinese government
announced on Friday that it will impose export controls on certain graphite
materials and related products.
In an announcement jointly issued by the Ministry of
Commerce and the General Administration of Customs, the export of artificial
graphite materials and related products with high purity (purity>99.9%),
high strength (flexural strength>30Mpa) and high density
(density>1.73g/cubic centimeter) will be banned, unless permission is
granted.
Meanwhile, natural flake graphite and its products,
including spheroidized graphite and expanded graphite, will also be banned from
export unless there is permission, according to the announcement.
The control measures take effect on Dec. 1, 2023,
according to the announcement.
As the following graph shows, China dominates graphite production.
It also dominates graphite processing.
Source: Statista
References:
Graphite
Creek Project, Alaska. Mining Technology. March 26, 2017. Graphite
Creek Project, Alaska - Mining Technology (mining-technology.com)
Graphite
One Completes Extensive Drilling Campaign at Graphite Creek, Reports Wide
Intercepts of High-Grade Graphite. PR Newswire. October 23, 2023. Graphite
One Completes Extensive 2023 Drilling Campaign at Graphite Creek, Reports Wide
Intercepts of High-Grade Graphite (yahoo.com)
China
announces export control on certain graphite materials, products. Source:
Xinhua Editor: huaxia. October 20, 2023. China
announces export control on certain graphite materials, products-Xinhua
(news.cn)
China's
new limit on battery metals could haunt the global EV boom. Jael Holzman.
Axios. October 23, 2023. China moves
to limit exports of key metal used in electric vehicle production (axios.com)
Graphite
One Enters into Market-Making Services Agreement. Graphite One. November 1,
2023. Graphite
One Enters into Market-Making Services Agreement - Graphite One
(graphiteoneinc.com)
Graphite
Outlook 2022: Demand from Battery Segment to Remain High. Priscila Barrera.
Investing News Network. January 17, 2022. Graphite
Outlook 2022: Demand from Battery Segment to Remain High (investingnews.com)
Electric
vehicle batteries may have a new source material – used tires. Li Cohen. CBS
News. November 28, 2023. Electric
vehicle batteries may have a new source material – used tires - CBS News
Forecast
for Natural Graphite Demand is Bullish. Tanka Engineers. April 4, 2021. Forecast
for Natural Graphite demand is Bullish (tankaengineers.in)
Global
Graphite Market - Forecasts from 2022 to 2027. August 2022. Knowledge Sourcing
Intelligence LLP. Research and Markets. Global
Graphite Market - Forecasts from 2022 to 2027 (researchandmarkets.com)
What
is Synthetic Graphite? Melissa Pistilli. Investing News Network. November 6,
2023. What
is Synthetic Graphite? (investingnews.com)
Graphite.
Wikipedia. Graphite -
Wikipedia
A U.S.
Based Supply Chain Solution to Support the Renewable Energy Transition.
Graphite One. Surging
Graphite Demand - Graphite One (graphiteoneinc.com)
New
U.S. Government Report Identifies Graphite One’s Graphite Creek Deposit “is
Among the Largest in the World.” Graphite One. New
U.S. Government Report Identifies Graphite One’s Graphite Creek Deposit “is
Among the Largest in the World.” - Graphite One (graphiteoneinc.com)
Insights
into the metamorphic history and origin of flake graphite mineralization at the
Graphite Creek graphite deposit, Seward Peninsula, Alaska, USA. February 27, 2023.
Mineralium Deposita. volume 58, pages939–962 (2023). Insights
into the metamorphic history and origin of flake graphite mineralization at the
Graphite Creek graphite deposit, Seward Peninsula, Alaska, USA | Mineralium
Deposita (springer.com)
Carbon
Nanomaterials. Millipore Sigma. Sigma Aldritch. Carbon
Nanomaterials (sigmaaldrich.com)
Opinion:
We can use carbon to decarbonize – and get hydrogen for free. Matteo Pasquali
and Carl Mesters. July 28, 2021. PNAS Vol. 118 (No. 31) e2112089118. We can use carbon to
decarbonize—and get hydrogen for free | PNAS
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