Supply Chains of Recovered Elements: The SCORE Consortium and U.S.-Sourced Scandium

     The SCORE Consortium is a group of U.S. businesses involved in the domestic extraction of critical minerals and the development of supply chains for them, especially minerals needed for the defense industry. The first ‘end-to-end’ project involves recovering the mineral scandium. They are focused on advanced solvent-free mineral extraction from coal and industrial wastes, and e-waste. The U.S. is currently 100% reliant on imports for scandium. 

     According to Anactisis:

“Scandium, a rare earth element, significantly enhances the strength, durability, and corrosion resistance of aluminum alloys. It is the secret ingredient that enables next-generation technologies in energy, transportation, defense, aerospace, and advanced manufacturing where high-performance materials are crucial.”

     Scandium is vital for aerospace alloys, advanced manufacturing, additive manufacturing (3D printing) technologies, and solid oxide fuel cells.

     SCORE is depicted as a commercialization accelerator for domestic critical elements. They are initially focusing on a five-state region: Wisconsin, Michigan, Ohio, West Virginia, and Pennsylvania.

“This 5-state region represents one third (33%) of foundry products and nearly one fourth (23%)of aluminum production nationally, key to minerals supply chain processes including recovery, refining, smelting, alloying, wire forming, additive powder and equipment production, as well as R&D, testing, and material standards for end users in automotive, aerospace, space, energy, and defense applications.”

     Scandium has been produced in Ukraine, Russia, and China. According to Wikipedia:

“Scandium is present in most of the deposits of rare-earth and uranium compounds, but it is extracted from these ores in only a few mines worldwide. Because of the low availability and difficulties in the preparation of metallic scandium, which was first done in 1937, applications for scandium were not developed until the 1970s, when the positive effects of scandium on aluminium alloys were discovered. Its use in such alloys remains its only major application. The global trade of scandium oxide is 15–20 tonnes per year.”

“The properties of scandium compounds are intermediate between those of aluminium and yttrium. A diagonal relationship exists between the behavior of magnesium and scandium, just as there is between beryllium and aluminium. In the chemical compounds of the elements in group 3, the predominant oxidation state is +3.”

     SCORE is involved in a coal waste mineral extraction project in Jefferson County, Pennsylvania. being developed by Firepoint Energy. They are involved in the extraction of gallium from coal waste in Ohio. Current demonstration projects are expected to be commercialized within a few years

“A SCORE analysis that looked at 61 major coal ash sites in Ohio, West Virginia, and Pennsylvania estimated $29-$38 billion in critical minerals and $14 billion in rare earth elements. Over 30 years, they estimate more than 25,000 direct jobs and another 124,000 total jobs when accounting for manufacturing and transportation.”

     A major co-benefit of minerals extraction from coal waste, including mine tailings, gob piles, coal ash, and acid mine drainage, is that the waste is treated by removing minerals, which will improve local water quality.

 

     

References:

 

A $40B critical mineral supply chain could start in Pennsylvania. Anthony Hennen. The Center Square. July 19, 2024. A $40B critical mineral supply chain could start in Pennsylvania (msn.com)

Supply Chains of Recovered Elements. SCORE Consortium

Firepoint Energy Selects Jefferson County Site For Waste Coal-To-Fuel Conversion, Rare Earth Element Recovery Production Site. PA Environment Digest Blog. July 5, 2024. PA Environment Digest Blog: Firepoint Energy Selects Jefferson County Site For Waste Coal-To-Fuel Conversion, Rare Earth Element Recovery Production Site (paenvironmentdaily.blogspot.com)

Anactisis revolutionizes the recovery of critical minerals to empower the global economy. Anactisis. Home - Anactisis

Scandium. Wikipedia. Scandium - Wikipedia

Scandium Introduction: Structure, Classification, and Characteristics. Scandium.org. Scandium Introduction: Atomic Structure, Classification, and Extraordinary Characteristics

 

The Science Behind Soil and Water Conservation: Measuring Trace Gases and Greenhouse Gases CO2, Methane, and N2O. Webinar Summary and Review. University of Arkansas, Division of Agriculture

     This was a very informative webinar. It was specifically focused on the state of Arkansas and its agricultural issues related to soil and water conservation. It focused heavily on measuring trace gases, specifically the greenhouse gases CO2, methane, and nitrous oxide (N2O). The gases were measured under different agricultural parameters to ascertain the effects of specific management practices on emissions of these gases.

     Soil and water resources are required for agriculture. Productive soil can be degraded quickly, but it takes hundreds of years to create it. Soil erosion is a problem. It erodes into waterways, increasing turbidity. Turbid water is hazardous for aquatic organisms. Poultry production waste is applied to the landscape for nutrient value in part of the state, but there is excess. In other places in the state, nutrients are deficient. Keeping sediments and nutrients out of waterways, particularly nitrogen and phosphorus, is important since this can lead to eutrophication, which can kill fish and other aquatic organisms. In Eastern Arkansas, water comes from groundwater aquifers and is lowering the water tables.

     Air quality is also an issue in the form of greenhouse gases, CO2, methane, and N2O. CO2 is emitted fairly uniformly through soil respiration. Methane and N2O are emitted in pockets where they form. Methane requires saturation or ponding and happens in wetlands. N2O requires a source of nitrate or nitrogen, typically organic or inorganic fertilizers. Denitrification yields N2, which is no problem, but when denitrification is short-circuited, it yields nitrous oxides. CH4 is roughly 30 times the global warming potential (GWP) of CO2 by weight. N2O = 300 times the GWP of CO2. Flood-irrigated rice releases methane. Arkansas is the leading US state for rice production. Flood-irrigated rice loses oxygen in a few weeks, making the system revert from aerobic decomposition to anaerobic decomposition, which enhances CH4 production. Soil temperatures are a factor as well. Silt loam produces more methane than clay loam. Organic fertilizers like poultry waste increase methane emissions more than inorganic fertilizers. Flooding methods can affect methane production. Continuous flood irrigated rice produces the most methane. Interrupted flooding results in fewer methane emissions. Rotation of crops can influence methane emissions. The timing of nutrient applications can be a factor. Giving a little at a time can result in fewer N2O emissions. There are tillage effects on N2O. No till = lower N2O.  Regarding methane and N2O, when one is increased, the other is decreased, so that is challenging. Rice is now being tested on raised beds in uplands with furrow irrigation. This results in a slight yield loss but less labor and less water usage. More area stays aerobic, but it is still challenging. Corn, cotton, and soybean crops are being studied with different combinations of paired management practices. Conventional tillage with no cover crop vs. less tillage with cover crops is being studied. Biochar has many soil benefits. It is being studied. Furrow irrigated cotton and corn show very little effect on CH4 and CO2, but maybe some reduction in N2O. In-field analyzers are being used more to get faster and more data.

 

 

Measuring Trace Gases, Specifically the Greenhouse Gases CO2, Methane, and N2O

     Trace gas measurement in row crops utilizes in-field technologies. New instrumentation relies on new calculations. Tech is improving quickly. Reliable, fast field results are now possible. Analytic techniques assess agronomic and environmental parameters. There are specific sampling and analysis techniques. The use of a vented chamber, a portable weather station, laptop. etc. is one setup. The chamber vents are plugged to allow the collection of soil gas samples. A thermometer measures chamber temperature. The cap is placed on the chamber, so it is sealed. Wires are connected, and a fan turns on. Gas samples are collected using a 20ml syringe, slowly pulled out. 20 ml of gas is injected into a 10 ml vial, so it is slightly pressurized. Vials are stored upside down in a special suitcase. The chamber can be used in wet or dry conditions. We can now take real-time assessments in the field to assess data quality. Analysis with this method is via gas chromatography. The gas chromatograph (GC) uses carrier gases, helium, argon, and compressed air. The GC has three detectors: 1) flame ionization detector, 2) electron capture detector, and 3) thermal conductivity (TC) detector. We used the first and third of these detectors with a GC to analyze oil & gas well gases. It takes up to 18 minutes per vial to analyze. It could take days to analyze data, but the accuracy is very good.

     There are also portable in-field instruments, three of which are shown and demonstrated. One involves enhanced cavity absorption with optimal feedback using infrared light and lasers. The chamber creates a sealed environment allowing for real-time measurements. This system has 8-hour batteries. Water vapor in the system is removed. The system can be controlled remotely with a phone or laptop. One can record trace gas concentrations every second. Typically, about 5 minutes is enough time to get the desired sample. Software called Soil Flux Pro is used to analyze the samples. Real-time data is an advantage as it can determine if something goes wrong instantly. It can analyze other gases too, such as ammonia. However, it cannot work in flooded environments.

     The next in-field instrument is another trace gas analyzer made by Li-Cor. It uses the same chamber as the previous system and also uses infrared laser technology. It uses a Fourier Transformation to analyze, converting an interferogram to an absorbance spectrum where concentration can be derived automatically via software. The chamber has sensors that measure soil conductivity, soil temperature, and other parameters. It is measured against background air by flushing out air before analyses, so there are no trace gases before samples are taken. This system is very sensitive to water vapor and temperature. A cover outfitted with highly reflective tape is used to limit high field temperatures. It can measure up to 50 trace gases. There is a need to bring a heavy pressurized gas tank into the field so that is one disadvantage.

     The third in-field sampler/analyzer is the smart chamber, which can be powered with solar panels and attached to a central computer to be operated remotely. The chambers can open and close on a timer. It can operate continuously and can be controlled remotely. This system allows for more data with less time in the field.

     Analysis of biogeochemical cycles in the field can be improved and better understood with these methods.

The Q&A portion of the presentations included a question about how herbicide and insecticide applications may affect measurements. This is generally not an issue, especially as more pre-emergent herbicides are being used. I assume he means herbicides built into seeds and seed genetics. Another question asked if a crop rotation from rice to soybeans, then back to rice, results in soil loss. They answered that it depends on tillage and flatness. Less topography and less tillage always result in less soil loss. Biochar question -can it filter out some water impurities? Biochar could possibly absorb nutrients and perhaps release them slowly.

     Trace gases in tillage with no crop rotation vs. furrow/raised bed with crop rotation is one ongoing study.  A two-year study is in progress to determine the effect on trace gases. It takes several seasons to confirm. Other management practices can be compared in different combinations. There was a funding question. They noted that instrumentation is expensive and needs to be very well maintained, and that manufacturers provide good support. Below is the Li-Cor analyzer and a video about how it works.

 

Soil Gas Flux Systems | LI-COR Environmental

      

References:

 

The Science Behind the Soil and Water Conservation. University of Arkansas, Division of Agriculture. Webinar. June 19, 2025.

Soil Gas Flux Solutions. Li-Cor. Soil Gas Flux Systems | LI-COR Environmental

 

Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors (PMSM) Are Powering Many Oilfield Operations, Mostly Production, but Also Drilling and Pipeline Transport

      Permanent magnet synchronous motors (PMSMs), also known as just permanent magnet motors (PMMs), are becoming more common in the oil & gas industry, especially for well production and artificial lift. Induction motors are the main type of motors used in oil & gas, but PMMs are replacing them in several areas.  Induction motors require current to be sent to the motor, but PMMs do not. Instead, the permanent magnets are mounted on the motors, which leads to increased efficiency through reduced power losses and higher power density. These motors can drive pumps, compressors, and other equipment. PMMs are typically used to power electric submersible pump (ESP) systems. According to UK PMM manufacturer Enneng:

“The adoption of PMSMs in the oil and gas industry marks one of the major recent technology shifts toward higher-value, more sustainable motor technologies. With inherent high torque density, precision speed control, and low maintenance requirements, PMSM motors are aptly suited to power critical equipment during oil exploration, extraction, and transportation.”

     The main advantages of PMMs over induction motors are improved reliability, increased well production, and improved efficiency. Improved efficiency means less energy use, lower operational costs, and lower emissions. PMMs have fewer moving parts than induction motors and lower maintenance requirements. Less maintenance means less downtime. They are better at operating at variable speeds. This means they are better at pump speed adjustments against flow rate variations in oil recovery. Enneng notes:

“Further integration with PMSM using advanced control algorithms and monitoring systems enhances the reliability of the latter during the operation in oilfield applications. Real-time monitoring and diagnostics permit quick detection of developing problems, allowing proactive measures in respect to maintenance. Thus, finding the problem well in advance and rectifying it will also improve the reliability of PMSM and overall operational efficiency in an oil field activity.”

     PMMs offer precise control of speed and torque. They are also resistant to vibrations, temperature, and corrosion. These abilities make them superior to induction motors. According to motor manufacturer Horizon Technology

“A 50 kW (about 70 HP) permanent motor typically weighs less than 30 lbs. At any given frequency, the rotational speed of the permanent magnet motor is always greater than that of its induction counterpart due to the inherent slippage necessary in the induction design.”

     According to a recent webcast on PMMs by World Oil, there are 1100 PMMs installed globally, with over 200 installed in the Permian Basin. The webcast was conducted by Baker Hughes personnel and highlights Baker Hughes’ Magnefficient PMMs. These are offered in several different horsepower (HP) versions. These motors are smaller than similar HP induction motors. On average, they are 30-50% shorter. This means they can be set deeper in wellbores. The smaller size makes them more applicable for slim holes. They also eliminate the need for tandem connections that larger induction motors have when adding HP. PMMs are easier to set up than IMs. They have also shown a 10% increase in uptime over IMs. They have been shown to be more stable in gas slugging events. Peak power usage is also lower, putting less stress on the power system. Pressure drawdown in wells also improved slightly. They are also more stable at lower loads. Power consumption is decreased by 15-30% on average. They have a broader optimal capacity range. They can reduce Scope 2 emissions. A Baker Hughes Magnefficient PMM is shown below with a list of advantages. Below that is a PMM made by SLB.

Source: SLB

     In the Permian installations, there have been no safety issues and no motor failures. Ops are moving from pilot to full commercialization in the Permian. Drive integration is important. Baker Hughes has their own drives, variable speed drives (VSDs), which are the most compatible with their PMMs, but they can be integrated with third-party drives. PMMs are currently up to 1200 HP, but new models up to 2000-3000 HP are in the works, mainly for geothermal applications.

     Electrical safety is an important issue. The use of the right PPE and proper training is emphasized. Determining the presence or absence of current during installation is important. Preventing the pump from spinning the motor during installation is important. Testing includes a 1) Power Generation Curve, which evaluates efficiency, 2) Fast Varying Load Test - determines how a PMM reacts to load changes, 3) High Load Start Test – simulates and ensures that required torque is correct, and 4) Grounded Leg Test makes sure it operates with a grounded leg. Baker Hughes offers in-house training for PMM installation.

     Well production increases of 10-12% have been shown with PMMs. Some is due to psi drawdown. One questioner asked why the adoption rate was so low. They answered that it is starting to grow faster. There is some distrust of electric motors. Results of studies showing improvements with PMM installations are just coming in. Training and safety requirements slow down adoption rates. The rate of adoption has grown faster globally than in the U.S., but that is likely to change as the benefits are more widely confirmed.

  

 

References:

 

Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors for Oilfield Applications. Enneng. December 22, 2023. Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors for Oilfield Applications

Induction vs. Permanent Magnet Motor Efficiency | Electrification. Fran Hanejko. Horizon Technology. November 29, 2022. Permanent Magnet vs Induction Motor: Torque, Losses, Material

Permanent Magnet Motors for REDA ESP pumps: Reduce electricity consumption and parasitic load while increasing the range of operations. SLB. Permanent Magnet Motors for REDA ESP Pumps

Unlocking the Potential of PMMs: Lessons Learned in the Permian. Webcast. World Oil. June 18, 2025. (Baker Hughes).

Permanent Magnet Motors for REDA ESP pumps. SLB. Permanent Magnet Motors for REDA ESP Pumps

Magnefficient permanent magnet motor. Baker Hughes. Magnefficient permanent magnet motor | Baker Hughes

Pollution and Fire Dangers from Wood Stoves is Significant: Data and New Tech for Evaluation and Reduction

     It is very well known that wood smoke is toxic, especially indoors, if it is not properly vented. Wood smoke pollution is in the form of particulates and toxic gases. PM 2.5 particulates are a major wood smoke pollutant, associated with asthma attacks, respiratory illnesses, probable cancer, and other health issues. Other harmful emissions include polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, methane, benzene, and formaldehyde. The EPA reported in 2016 that about 150 people die in the U.S. each year due to carbon monoxide poisoning associated with more than 17.5 million fireplaces, 241,000 hydronic heaters, and 10.1 million wood stoves nationwide, and that 65% of the wood stoves, or 6.5 million of them, are older and inefficient. They recommend replacement with EPA-certified stoves.

Benefits of replacing an old wood stove with an EPA-certified stove: 

·        saves money, fuel, time, and resources.

·        up to 50 percent more energy efficient.

·        uses 1/3 less wood for the same heat.

·        cuts creosote build-up in chimneys that helps reduce the risk of fire.

 

They also recommend using wood that has been split, stacked, covered, and stored for more than 6 months. They also note that chimney smoke, up to 70% of it, can re-enter the home or nearby homes. While they say stoves should be smoke-free inside the house, they also recommend HEPA filters, which can decrease any indoor smoke by 60%. There are cases where neighbors of someone who heats with wood have gotten respiratory diseases from wood smoke. The notion that since wood smoke is natural, it is also clean and even carbon-neutral are all wrong. Wood ovens in use at restaurants are another source of toxic wood smoke. The hipster local solar and shallow geothermal-powered café that got massive government subsidies also runs a wood oven, which likely significantly wipes out their pollution and CO2 footprints. I just noticed my neighbors, who have an extra small house to soon be inhabited by their son as he attends college, has been outfitted with a wood burner, judging from the chimney pipe. It is not too close to me and mainly downwind, so I am not too worried about it. Wood smoke kills. According to a 2022 article in Undark Magazine:

“…a 2017 study, researchers from Boston and North Carolina estimated that residential combustion causes 10,000 premature deaths in the US every year, mainly from woodsmoke.”

     Wood stoves are the U.S.'s third-largest source of particulate matter pollution, after wildfire smoke and agricultural dust. In the winter in populated areas, the use of wood stoves may be restricted as they can account for the majority of poor air quality. This is especially the case in areas where winter weather inversions are common. These inversions keep the wood smoke in the lower atmosphere where it can be breathed for a longer period and collect at higher concentrations.  

 

Chimney Fires and House Fires

     After we bought a house that was heated with a stove, fireplace, and an oil furnace in 1998, one of our first fires resulted in a chimney fire. The previous occupants had been burning pine wood, which leaves a very high amount of creosote buildup in the chimney. It had just gotten dark, and I was outside when it seemed the sky had lit up. It was the chimney on fire. Luckily, my wife was inside and immediately closed the flue, and the fire went out. After that, we had a chimney sweep come and clean the chimney. We then decided to sell the wood stove and the oil furnace and install unvented propane heaters and just have occasional fireplace fires. According to the EPA:

“The National Fire Protection Association estimates that in 2011, heating equipment was involved in an estimated 53,600 reported U.S. home structure fires, with associated losses of 400 civilian deaths, 1,520 civilian injuries, and $893 million in direct property damage. These fires accounted for 14 percent of all reported home fires.” 

The main reason for the fires was a lack of cleaning out the creosote buildup in chimneys.

 

Solutions for Cleaning Up Wood Smoke

     A recent paper published in the Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association, led by Nordica MacCarty at Oregon State University, notes that “70% of the pollution emitted from wood stove flues happens at two points in time: when a stove is first lit, and when it's reloaded.” In old stoves, heat transfer and combustion are not optimized.

"They have no catalysts or secondary combustion to reduce emissions and lower the risk of creosote buildup that can cause chimney fires."

     New methods to reduce wood smoke pollution include optimizing the amount of air in the mix and the timing of air input through automated systems. According to Tech Xplore:

“MacCarty's group is developing automated technologies that inject jets of primary and secondary air into the fire to provide just the right amount of air and mixing at the right time and place in the fire. Prototypes are showing about a 95% reduction in particulate matter emissions compared to older models, she said.

     This research can also inform the development of safer wood-burning cooking stoves, which are used extensively around the world, especially in poor countries. About 2.7 billion people around the world depend on wood stoves for cooking. This has led to many respiratory illnesses, including premature deaths. This affects women and children mostly.

"It's difficult to measure wood stove emissions in the field, so there has been relatively little in-use performance data available in the past to guide designs," MacCarty said. "Our study introduces a new system that makes collecting real-world emissions data more practical."  

     Below is a section of the paper’s abstract:

“Implications: Detailed time-apportioned PM emissions data identified conditions leading to high emission rates including startup, large loads, and operation of an uncertified stove. Provides wood stove designers insights toward optimizing performance of future stove designs, and policy makers information about the impact of user and technology on air quality objectives. Demonstrated new equipment for real-time emissions and fuel consumption monitoring that enables time-resolved PM and direct fuel mass measurements to yield better design insights for heating stoves. This method can be used by other researchers to gather much needed field measurements at a lower cost and complexity than existing methods.”

     I think the bottom line is that while an occasional wood fire is probably OK, when people heat their whole house with wood all winter, they risk their own health and their neighbor’s health, even if they have the least-polluting wood stoves. The problem is exacerbated when there are many people in small areas burning wood for primary heat. While wood can be a cheaper alternative, it is definitely not safer.

 

 

   

References:

 

New technologies help wood-burning stoves burn more efficiently, produce less smoke. Steve Lundeberg, Oregon State University. Tech Xplore. June 6, 2025. New technologies help wood-burning stoves burn more efficiently, produce less smoke

Burn Wise. Wood Smoke Awareness Kit. U.S. EPA. 2014.  Microsoft Word - Burn Wise fast facts_9.24.2014.docx

In-situ measurements of emissions and fuel loading of non-catalytic cordwood stoves in rural Oregon. Samuel Bentson, Ryan Thompson, Jaden Berger, Jonah Wald & Nordica MacCarty. Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association. May 2025. In-situ measurements of emissions and fuel loading of non-catalytic cordwood stoves in rural Oregon: Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association: Vol 0, No 0 - Get Access

An EPA fix for pollution-spewing wood stoves is backfiring. Officials are increasingly treating woodsmoke as a public health and environmental justice issue, despite opposition. Diana Kruzman / Undark. Popular Science. March 7, 2022. The health risks of wood stoves and smoke pollution | Popular Science

Micropollutants from Tire Waste: Similar to Microplastics, Prevalent Near Roadways, In Food: EV Tires Wear Faster

     When our tires wear out over time, that rubber is lost, particle by particle, on and near the roads they roll on. At least a couple of studies over the last few years have confirmed that micropollutants from tire waste have been contaminating vegetables in nearby farms. A 2024 study from Vienna, published in Frontiers of Environmental Science, confirmed that microparticles from car tires are getting into crops through a combination of atmospheric deposition, treated wastewater being used to irrigate, and sewage sludge being used as fertilizer. Fortunately, the concentration remains small, likely below the threshold to cause damage. Apparently, car tires contain hundreds of substances, some linked to nasty side effects at significant concentrations. For this reason, the use of rubber mulch, once considered a viable way to recycle tires, is being abandoned. Rubber mulch does not decompose like wood chip mulch. Thus, it also does not offer any nutrients to the soil like wood chip mulch does. In 2024, I was working for a local Health Department. One morning on the way to work, I got a call to go to the local recycling center, where trucks brought in tires that were dumped, and we loaded them into a semi. They were to be given or sold to a place that recycles them by shredding them into mulch. While we thought we were doing a public good deed, it now appears that is not the case.

     A May 2025 study from Switzerland, published in the Journal of Hazardous Materials, noted, according to Phys.org, that:

“…tires often "release additives such as antioxidants and vulcanizing agents" that can make their way to agriculture after dispersing through the air and being transported by runoff water. In addition to inhaling these chemicals, humans are exposed to them by ingesting contaminated food, researchers from the EPFL and the Swiss Federal Food Safety and Veterinary Office determined.”

“They found that 31% of the samples contained traces of the compounds, including 6-PPD and 6-PPD-quinone, with no difference according to where the fruits and vegetables came from or whether they were organic.”

     The toxicity of the compounds to small mammals has been established. However, the effects on humans have not been established, and the dosages that would be dangerous have also not been established.  

“When tires wear against road surfaces, they release additives such as antioxidants and vulcanizing agents (which give rubber more strength, elasticity, and durability). These particles, the toxicity of which is yet to be determined, disperse through the air, settle on the ground, and are transported in runoff water. Humans are exposed to them in two ways: by inhaling them and, as the EPFL-FSVO study shows, by ingesting them in contaminated food.”

     Highlights and the Abstract from the 2025 study are given below.

     One time when I was younger, I worked an 8-hour shift at a temporary job at a tire warehouse. The smell of the tires was strong, and after a while, I developed a headache. Although I’m not sure if I was exposed to anything dangerous, I was glad to get out of there.

     Phys.org cites a 2017 study that concluded that six million metric tons of these additives are released into the environment every year. These micropollutants have also been found in rural areas and in mountain lakes. Researchers say we don’t yet know whether we should seek to produce less-toxic alternatives or phase out the use of the materials. Road workers may be the most exposed to these toxins. Chinese researchers are currently studying the presence of these compounds in human blood and urine.

 

EVs are Heavy, Which Means They Produce Tire Waste Faster

     As we transition to more EVs, the problem of tire waste will intensify. This is because EVs are heavier due to battery weight, which makes tires wear faster due to more friction against the road, increasing the rate of localized contamination. The instant torque of EVs also contributes to faster tire wear. Driving habits can slightly reduce the rate of EV tire wear. According to an article in the Morning Review:

“Manufacturers are actively working on developing new tire technologies that can withstand the unique demands of electric vehicles. Advances in materials and design aim to improve the durability of EV tires, ensuring they last longer despite the additional stresses imposed by the vehicle’s weight and torque.”

References:

 

New study makes concerning discovery about farms where food is grown: 'A critical step in understanding the potential risks'. Doric Sam. The Cool Down. May 19, 2025. New study makes concerning discovery about farms where food is grown: 'A critical step in understanding the potential risks'

Electric Cars Destroy Tires—Here’s Why It Happens So Fast. Alexander Clark. Morning Overview. June 8, 2025. Electric Cars Destroy Tires—Here’s Why It Happens So Fast

New study raises concerns after finding levels of car tire materials in vegetables: 'That's not where they belong'. Jenny Allison. The Cool Down. June 15, 2024. New study raises concerns after finding levels of car tire materials in vegetables: 'That's not where they belong'

Assessment of tire-derived additives and their metabolites into fruit, root and leafy vegetables and evaluation of dietary intake in Swiss adults. Florian Breider, Thibault Masset, Kelyan Prud’homme, and Beat J. Brüschweiler. Journal of Hazardous Materials. Volume 494, 15 August 2025. Assessment of tire-derived additives and their metabolites into fruit, root and leafy vegetables and evaluation of dietary intake in Swiss adults - ScienceDirect

Uptake of tire-derived compounds in leafy vegetables and implications for human dietary exposure. Anya Sherman, Luzian Elijah Hämmerle, Evyatar Ben Mordechay, Benny Chefetz, Thorsten Hüffer, and Thilo Hofmann. Front. Environ. Sci., 27 May 2024. Sec. Toxicology, Pollution and the Environment. Volume 12 - 2024 | https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2024.1384506.

Gardener seeks advice with remediating landscaping mistake left by previous homeowner: 'It makes me cringe and want to cry'. Kelsey Kovner. The Cool Down. June 7, 2024. Gardener seeks advice with remediating landscaping mistake left by previous homeowner: 'It makes me cringe and want to cry'

Tire additives found deposited on fruits and vegetables. Sandrine Perroud, Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne. Phys.org. May 6, 2025. Tire additives found deposited on fruits and vegetables

Iranian Oil Buyers and the Strait of Hormuz Chokepoint That Iran Controls

     Iranian oil and gas sales have long been sanctioned by the “West,” but there are several countries that regularly buy Iranian oil, which is discounted due to the sanctions. Thus, these countries basically profit by getting discounts. China buys lots of Iranian oil, which is re-labeled as “Malaysian.” This oil supplies China’s small independent “teapot” refiners. Syria has long been dependent on Iranian oil to power its grid. In 2024, Türkiye began importing small amounts of Iranian oil, mainly for the low price. In UAE ports, Iranian oil cargoes are blended with other oil and re-exported, for a price. Ship-to-ship transfers of Iranian crude are happening in Malaysian waters, much like ship-to-ship transfers of Russian crude have become common. Venezuela’s heavy crude benefits from blending with lighter Iranian crude, which acts as a diluent to make the blend flow better than the heavy crude. Afghanistan gets about a quarter of its crude, including diesel and LPG, from neighboring Iran.

     If the Israeli-Iran conflict gets bogged down, the Iranians may attempt to close the Strait of Hormuz, which will block quite a lot of oil from getting to markets. In 2024, oil flow through the strait averaged 20 million barrels per day (b/d), or the equivalent of about 20% of global petroleum liquids consumption. Since there are no real alternative options, closing the Strait would result in large oil price spikes. It could trigger U.S. involvement. EIA also notes that one-fifth of global liquefied natural gas trade also transited the Strait of Hormuz in 2024, primarily from Qatar. Saudi Arabian crude accounts for 38% of the oil moved through the strait, or about 5.5 million barrels per day. EIA estimates that there is “about 2.6 million b/d of capacity from the Saudi and UAE pipelines could be available to bypass the Strait of Hormuz in the event of a supply disruption.” The Bab al-Mandeb Strait in the Red Sea is another chokepoint that has been threatened by the Houthis in Yemen.

     EIA estimates that the vast majority of oil, oil products, and LNG that traverse the Strait of Hormuz are destined for Asia:

“We estimate that 84% of the crude oil and condensate and 83% of the liquefied natural gas that moved through the Strait of Hormuz went to Asian markets in 2024. China, India, Japan, and South Korea were the top destinations for crude oil moving through the Strait of Hormuz to Asia, accounting for a combined 69% of all Hormuz crude oil and condensate flows in 2024. These markets would likely be most affected by supply disruptions at Hormuz.”

     EIA estimates that about 7% of crude and condensate (about 0.5 million barrels per day) and 2% of oil products imported to the U.S. go through the strait. This is the lowest level in 40 years, as it continues to be replaced by U.S. and Canadian crude.

 

  

 

References:

 

7 Countries Most Reliant on Iranian Oil. Matt Schmitto. Prediction News. June 15, 2025.  7 Countries Most Reliant on Iranian Oil

Amid regional conflict, the Strait of Hormuz remains critical oil chokepoint. Energy Information Administration. June 16, 2025. Amid regional conflict, the Strait of Hormuz remains critical oil chokepoint - U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA)

Next Gen Uranium-235 Fuel System in Use at Georgia’s Vogtle Plant Has Higher Enrichment and Better Heat Resistance

     The first reactor of Southern Company’s Vogtle nuclear power plant in Georgia came online in 2023. It was the first new reactor built from scratch to come online in the U.S. for three decades, although it was years behind schedule and billions above original cost estimates. Last year, the second reactor at Vogtle came online. In April of 2025, that reactor became the first in the U.S. To be powered by second-generation nuclear fuel, uranium-235 that is enriched above 5%. This also enables the reactor to last longer between refueling times and generate less radioactive waste. The article in Fortune notes that it is not yet clear whether other older reactors will be outfitted to run on the higher-enriched fuel. Cost and age of the reactors are factors.

     The fuel is in the form of pellets that can easily be dispensed into the reactor. It has been analogized to a Pez dispenser. The pellets are “doped” with materials such as chromium oxide and alumina to improve performance under high temperatures. The dispenser cladding is doped with zirconium for the same reason. These coatings mean that in case of an accident, there would be much more time to cool the reactor core, if needed. The higher-enriched fuel means that refueling intervals of 18 months can be extended to 24 months.

    Fortune attempted to ascertain whether other companies were interested in buying the fuel, but apparently, none were, at least not yet, as the zirconium-coated cladding has yet to be commercialized, and that could take a decade. Dominion Energy did say that they were considering it for the future. Constellation said they would consider it when commercialized. Ken Peterson, former president of the American Nuclear Society, noted:

“New nuclear plants won’t come online anytime soon, so maximizing existing facilities is critical. “If you look at U.S. capacity factors, we’re higher than anybody else. We’re pushing up against those limits, and that’s why we need this additional enrichment.”

     A 2019 whitepaper by the Nuclear Energy Institute notes that demand for higher-enriched fuel will grow, as there is increased interest in higher burnup reactor cores. Higher enrichment enables higher burnup.

“With the increased interest in higher burnup cores, it is likely that within the next decade, both operating and advanced reactors will see a demand for fuel enriched greater than 5 weight percent (wt%) U‐235.”

     They also explain that the degree of enrichment and level of burnup make up nearly all of the possibilities to decrease fuel costs, aside from the raw uranium commodity costs.

“A site’s fuel costs depend on two factors, the price of the fuel components (uranium feed, conversion, enrichment, and fabrication) and the efficiency of the core design. Fuel component costs are driven by supply and demand and are largely outside the control of a utility. The efficiency of a core design determines the quantity of nuclear material needed to meet a plant’s energy objectives. While a utility can improve the efficiency of the core design, this efficiency is ultimately limited by the specific design constraints of the core design. Two of several constraints that have been shown to directly impact the core design efficiency are the uranium enrichment level and discharge burnup achieved by the core and/or fuel design. A review of the current fuel management practices, based on equilibrium cycle designs, has shown that 99% of the variation in fuel cycle efficiency is attributable to variations in enrichment and burnup. Many sites are currently constrained by the existing regulatory limits on one or both of these parameters.”

 

    

 

References

 

Southern Co. quietly makes next-gen nuclear fuel history in Georgia. Alexander C. Kaufman. Fortune. June 12, 2025. Southern Co. quietly makes next-gen nuclear fuel history in Georgia

The Economic Benefits and Challenges with Utilizing Increased Enrichment and Fuel Burnup for Light‐Water Reactors. Nuclear Energy Institute. February 2019. NEI-White-Paper-The-Economic-Benefits-and-Challenges-with-Utilizing-Increased-Enrichment-and-Fuel-Burnup-for-LWR.pdf