Helium Exploration: State of the Science: Geology, Reserves, Economics, and Some Plays and Prospects

 

About Helium

     Helium is the 2^nd most abundant element in the universe and the second smallest molecule. Hydrogen is number 1 in both. Helium is a very inert, non-reactive gas. It has the lowest boiling point of all substances. It will never freeze. It has high conductivity. Helium occurs in two forms, one with three protons (Helium 3) and one with four protons (Helium 4). There are two mechanisms for its origin. One is helium 3 emplaced during the formation of the Earth. The other is helium 4 derived from radioactive decay of uranium, thorium, and lithium. The source of these mineral elements may be from igneous, metamorphic, or carbonaceous sedimentary rocks close to basement. Uranium and thorium from granitic rocks are the most common source. Helium 4 is by far the most common form of helium encountered via drilling. About 17% of natural gas wells contain some helium but the real percentage is likely significantly higher as many were not tested for helium. Helium occurs in the atmosphere at 5.2-6 parts per million. Helium often occurs with nitrogen, CO2, natural gas, and natural hydrogen in varying proportions. It does not occur with oil since helium is often pushed out during migration of the oil. Helium emplacement is associated with rift systems where tectonic plates move away from each other as outgassing from the resulting faults and fractures. Accumulations often occur in porous rocks just above or near the top of igneous or metamorphic basement.

 

Uses of Helium and Helium Demand

     The graphic below shows the main uses of helium. Cryogenics is the main use. Its main use in cryogenics is in cooling superconducting magnets in MRI machines. Thus, medical use is the main use. There are many other uses besides those shown here. Its use as a component of rocket fuel is important. The second graph from 2014 shows the major uses for helium in the U.S.

 Source: Helium One

 

Source: Wikipedia

Source: AAPG Helium Webinar- Steven Tedesco

     The U.S., E.U., Canada, and others consider helium to be a critical raw material. East Asia has been leading helium demand growth. Countries that are continuing to modernize and provide better medical care for their populations require more MRI machines and that is the main source of demand growth. Helium is considered to have a high geopolitical risk since its production is limited to certain countries. Current supply estimates suggest we have 100-200 years of helium supply left in geologic reservoirs.

 

 

 

Source: Proven and Hypothetical Helium Resources in Utah. Tyler J. Wiseman and Marc T. Eckels. Utah Geological Survey. 2020. Wiseman-and-Eckels-2020-Proven-and-hypothetical-helium-resources-in-Utah-RS-no-Attachment.pdf

Where Helium is Produced

     The U.S. and Qatar produced 75% of the world’s helium, each at about 37.5%. Other big producers include Algeria, Russia, Australia, and Canada. Canada’s helium production is expected to grow significantly. In the U.S. and Canada, most helium production comes from the Midcontinent area and the Rockies. Texas and Kansas produce from the large accumulation in the Hugoton formation, but those fields are in decline. Other states and provinces with significant helium production include Wyoming, Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, Utah, Saskatchewan, and Alberta. Wyoming has the most production with one field there producing about 9.4% of the world’s supply. Wells have found potentially commercial quantities of helium in Michigan and Kentucky. The Michigan accumulation is not expected to be significant, but the Kentucky accumulation is certainly underexplored and could represent a potential supply nearer to population centers where it is consumed. However, no current projects are happening there. Kansas deposits are high grade (high helium%) but Arizona/New Mexico has the highest percentages. Wyoming has the largest reserves though the quality/he% is lower.

 

Source: AAPG Helium Webinar - Steven Tedesco

Source: Statista

Source: AAPG Helium Webinar - Steven Tedesco

Source: Proven and Hypothetical Helium Resources in Utah. Tyler J. Wiseman and Marc T. Eckels. Utah Geological Survey. 2020. Wiseman-and-Eckels-2020-Proven-and-hypothetical-helium-resources-in-Utah-RS-no-Attachment.pdf

Geology of Helium Emplacement, Migration, Trapping, and Sealing

     As mentioned, the source rocks for helium are often granites that contain significant amounts of uranium, thorium, and lithium that decay into helium over long periods of geologic time. These are usually sandstones or carbonates. Porous reservoirs in the sedimentary section in close proximity to the igneous basement rocks are the usual reservoirs. Helium, as a very small molecule, will migrate to the top of a structure. Most plays find it trapped in structural domes with four-way closure and very good sealing rocks above. Salts and anhydrites make the best seals but other rocks such as shales can seal it as well.

     Helium often occurs with nitrogen and CO2, but nitrogen and CO2 may also occur without helium. It also occurs often with natural gas which always has a different origin than helium. Natural gas is generated in sedimentary rocks at high temperatures and pressures due to burial, but helium is derived from basement rocks or near-basement carbonaceous shales. Helium also may occur with hydrogen but sources of the two are not considered the same, though they both often occur along rifting zones accessed by basement faults. There are nitrogen and CO2 deposits without any helium. Thus, there is much variability in gas compositions.

     Helium can be remobilized during basin fluid expulsion. As shown in the models below helium first migrates from granitic basement faults that extend into the sedimentary section, into reservoirs, then migrates updip along traps to accumulate in the structural highs or domes. It first migrates with basin water and other fluids. As Wiseman and Eckels report in their 2020 paper: “Helium fractionates into the gas phase easier in shallow, cooler, and underpressured reservoirs with higher salinity formation water.” Veteran helium explorer Steven Tedesco, who conducted a recent helium webinar for AAPG, noted that helium deposits are often found in areas where there are two differing orientations of basement faulting. One of those orientations is likely to be faulting associated with rifting.

 

 

Source: AAPG Helium Webinar - Steven Tedesco

Source: Proven and Hypothetical Helium Resources in Utah. Tyler J. Wiseman and Marc T. Eckels. Utah Geological Survey. 2020. Wiseman-and-Eckels-2020-Proven-and-hypothetical-helium-resources-in-Utah-RS-no-Attachment.pdf

Source: AAPG Helium Webinar - Steven Tedesco

Helium Processing, Transport, and Strategic Reserves

     Helium requires processing to separate it from the total gas stream. This requires significant amounts of energy. Where applicable the natural gas that occurs in conjunction with helium can be used to provide that energy. However, not all helium deposits occur with natural gas so those deposits without it will have different economics. Building a processing plant can be expensive. There are six companies that buy helium in the U.S. They are typically large companies focused on “industrial gases.” These companies may fund processing plants for small producers. Non-cryogenic plants cost more and need bigger reserves.   

Source: Helium One

     Helium is transported as a cryogenic (supercooled) liquid, which requires complex time-constrained logistics. This is due to its propensity to leak. That is one reason why producing helium from the abundant helium 3 (emplaced in planetoid formation) reserves on the moon would be difficult.

     The U.S. maintains a federal strategic helium reserve. NBC News reports: “The mammoth underground structure is comprised of nearly 500 miles of pipeline — stretching from Amarillo, Texas, to the panhandle of Oklahoma to Kansas — and supplies roughly 40% of the world’s helium.” This has been fed mostly by the now declining Hugoton deposits that overly it. There has been discussion about selling the reserve to a private entity but there has also been pushback against that. The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) manages the reserve. Helium shortages have already affected the availability of MRI services and could make costs higher for consumers of these medical services. Helium prices shot up to nearly double as a result of the Russian invasion of Ukraine. Detractors of the potential sale say the sale would likely result in higher helium prices.   

 

 

Current Helium Exploration Criteria and Areas

 

     Tedesco points out that there are two main factors in evaluating helium gas shows in wells. First one needs to know the % of helium in the gas stream. Second, one needs to know the production rate of the total gas. Thus, he notes that if the He% is say 4-8% then the gas production rate needs to be about 250 mcf/day or above. If the He% is at 0.5-2%, then the gas rate needs to be 1MMCF/day or above. Aeromagnetic, seismic, and gravity surveys can help delineate deep basement structures. Structure mapping can identify potential traps. Dry holes and sub-economic wells are common in helium exploration.

     Helium exploration is ongoing in the Midcontinent and Rockies. Extension of Wyoming production may be limited by proximity to National Park lands. There may be areas where helium can be produced with natural hydrogen. Some explorers want to drill into fractured granite in search of helium.

Source: Helium in Wyoming. Kelsey S. Kehoe. Wyoming State Geological Survey. Public Information Circular No. 48.  2023. wsgs-2023-pic-48.pdf

 

Helium in Tanzania Along the East Africa Rift System Basins

 

A large accumulation has been known in Tanzania for decades, but sufficient traps have yet to be found. However, a London, U.K. company called Helium One, has been exploring for the past few years there in the East Africa Rift System. The rift system consists of multiple rift basins associated with major rift normal faults. From the shows and seismic it looks like they are targeting the high sides of the faults. They have recorded over 10% helium concentrations from thermal springs. One basin there, Rukwa could become a major producing area. Helium One has been exploring the area for several years now. They are currently testing that area with Phase II drilling. According to Helium One:

 

“Rukwa hosts independently verified (SRK-2020) Best-Estimate Unrisked Prospective Recoverable Helium Resource (2U/P50) of 138Bcf, making this the largest known primary helium resource in the world. Helium concentrations up to 10.2% He have been recorded in surface seeps, representing incredible high grade compared to typical values of 0.1-0.3% associated with hydrocarbon by-product production. An extensive multispectral satellite spectroscopy (MSS) seep study over the basin in 2021 also confirmed the presence of these known seeps and has aided our exploration efforts with identifying potential new seeps and understanding helium migration through the basin.”

 

It should be interesting to see what knowledge comes out about helium migration. The following slides are also from Helium One, highlighting the geology in their prospect areas.

 

Helium One is modeling capex costs at $38 million US) per processing plant and $48 million for 6 wells plus gathering lines. They purchased their own drilling rig over the same to help better control timing and costs. It should be interesting to see the results.

 

Possible Helium Play Along the Kentucky River Fault System/MidContinent Rift System in Central Kentucky

 

     As mentioned, there is currently no activity in exploring for helium in Kentucky. There have been shows of helium gas in wells, of potentially commercial quantities if gas production rates were higher. One well in particular, Texaco’s No. 1 Kirby well in Garrard County, Kentucky, had helium shows as high as 1.9%. As shown in some of the slides below these shows occur along a major rift fault. The structure is not unlike what Helium One is targeting in Tanzania – high-side of down-to-basin normal faults bounding the rift system. There are some areas where there are different directional orientations of basement faults as Tedesco mentioned were often associated with helium presence. At first, I wondered if a well to the northwest closer to the center of the Jessamine Dome, which is a part of the Cincinnati Arch system could act as a trap. That is probably not feasible since the earliest age of the formation of the Cincinnati Arch is Late Ordovician and this would require further migration of the helium up through the Cambrian section to reach the dome and since the surface is Ordovician there is not much chance for good trapping in the shaly limestones. Geologists at Kentucky Geological Survey believe that the main source of the helium is the carbonaceous Conasauga Shale, with the Grenville-aged basement granites a lesser source. The Conasauga Shale is above the biggest helium show at the top of the Rome Formation so I think they may be suggesting that the helium is migrating up from the deeper and thicker Conasauga on the low side of the rift fault.

Source: Helium in Central Kentucky? Cores from the Texaco No. 1 Kirby well, Garrard County, Ky. Kentucky Geological Survey. Helium in Central Kentucky? Cores from the Texaco No. 1 Kirby well, Garrard County, Ky. (uky.edu)

Source of Above Three Slides: Assessing the Potential Helium Resources in Central Kentucky. J. Richard Bowersox. AAPG. Search and Discovery Article #51573 (2019).  View PDF (searchanddiscovery.com)

     A paper that came out in 2018 in the Geological Society of America’s GSA Today reinterpreted the presumed extension of the Grenville Front south into Ohio as instead an extension of the Eastern arm of Midcontinent Rift. There is significant evidence to support this interpretation. One is the exploratory discovery of the Middle Run Formation, interpreted as a localized but thick Precambrian-aged metasedimentary Sandstone deposited in a local rift basin in Warren County, Ohio. This well is along the Western edge of the proposed Midcontinent Rift extension in the paper. One core in the well showed large vugs in the Knox Dolomite, which is quite thick in Southern Ohio and Kentucky. On the other side of that same proposed rift extension is a well I evaluated during drilling in Brown County, Ohio near the town of Sardinia on the flank of the Cincinnati Arch. The Knox Formation is older than the Cincinnati Arch. I believe it was at or not far below the Knox Unconformity which is the truncated top of the Knox Formation a little past 1700ft total depth. There the well had a very small gas show with a strong sulfurous smell. I was surprised the gas show was so small considering the smell. The rock samples, some of which I still have, included large dolomite crystals, small sucrosic (sugary) dolomite crystals, shimmering large pyrite crystals, and possibly anhydrite. There was also a strong saltwater show. I am guessing it was a sulfate-bearing brine, probably with lots of sodium, calcium, chlorides, and sulfates like in the Cambrian brines in Ohio and in the Michigan and Illinois basins. The deeper Cambrian brines are very saline with high total dissolved solids, more than the shallower brines. The large vugs with large crystals suggest the work of hydrothermal brines coming up from the hotter basement. I had seen Knox vugular dolomite in multiple wells and these crystals were much larger. I know of a Knox exploratory well a little to the east in Pike County in Ohio that encountered very high percentages of nitrogen (I seem to recall 80% or possibly 30%). I don’t know if the outgasses are related to the saline brines, I am just noting some reservoir fluids present in the rocks of the general provenance of a shallow salty sea with marine and clastic deposits. It is uncertain if any outgassing from rift faults or other basement faults makes it to the Knox, but it seems likely. There is high nitrogen content in gas even further to the east in Gallia County, Ohio in the Silurian Clinton in fields I have worked with directly. There was also some CO2 and some trace amounts of hydrogen and helium. We did have an aeromagnetic survey flown over the region and defined basement faults and there was fair to good juxtaposition of interpreted basement faults with higher nitrogen gas. Even further east in West Virginia in the central part of the Appalachian Basin, there are a few fields in the Silurian equivalent Tuscaroras Formation that have over 50% CO2 that in the past was sold as food-grade CO2 to the beverage industry. Those wells are within the boundaries of the failed Cambrian rift system known as the Rome Trough which opened up the Iapetus Ocean that still underlies the center of the Appalachian Basin.   

 

 Source: Is the “Grenville Front” in the central United States really the Midcontinent Rift? Carol A. Stein, Seth Stein, Reece Elling, G. Randy Keller, and Jonas Kley. GSA Today. Geological Society of America. Volume 28 Issue 5 (May 2018). GSA Today - Is the “Grenville Front” in the central United States really the Midcontinent Rift? (geosociety.org)

References:

Helium Prospecting, Production, Transportation and Breakthroughs - Dr. Steve Tedesco – AAPG Webinar, November 14, 2023. Bing Videos

Impending sale of scientifically critical helium sparks worries. Julia Rosen. AAAS. Science. November 6, 2023. Impending sale of scientifically critical helium sparks worries | Science | AAAS

Massive helium fields found in rift zone of Tanzania. Eric Hand. AAS. Science. July 8, 2016. Massive helium fields found in rift zone of Tanzania | Science

Wyoming One of Largest Helium Producers. The Cheyenne Post. November 2, 2023. Wyoming One of Largest Helium Producers | News | thecheyennepost.com

Helium in Central Kentucky? Cores from the Texaco No. 1 Kirby well, Garrard County, Ky. Kentucky Geological Survey. Helium in Central Kentucky? Cores from the Texaco No. 1 Kirby well, Garrard County, Ky. (uky.edu)

Assessing the Potential Helium Resources in Central Kentucky. J. Richard Bowersox. AAPG. Search and Discovery Article #51573 (2019).  View PDF (searchanddiscovery.com)

Proven and Hypothetical Helium Resources in Utah. Tyler J. Wiseman and Marc T. Eckels. Utah Geological Survey. 2020. Wiseman-and-Eckels-2020-Proven-and-hypothetical-helium-resources-in-Utah-RS-no-Attachment.pdf

Helium resource global supply and demand: Geopolitical supply risk analysis. Ankesh Siddhantakar, Jair Santillán-Saldivar, Thomas Kippes, Guido Sonnemann, Armin Reller, and Steven B. Young. Resources, Conservation and Recycling. Volume 193, June 2023, 106935. Helium resource global supply and demand: Geopolitical supply risk analysis - ScienceDirect

The fate of America’s largest supply of helium is up in the air. Mary Pflum. NBC News. February 7, 2023. The fate of America’s largest supply of helium is up in the air (nbcnews.com)

Helium One. Investor Presentation. August/September 2023. PowerPoint Presentation (helium-one.com)

Helium One. Projects. Introduction - Helium One Global (helium-one.com)

Is the “Grenville Front” in the central United States really the Midcontinent Rift? Carol A. Stein, Seth Stein, Reece Elling, G. Randy Keller, and Jonas Kley. GSA Today. Geological Society of America. Volume 28 Issue 5 (May 2018). GSA Today - Is the “Grenville Front” in the central United States really the Midcontinent Rift? (geosociety.org)

The Geology of Ohio – The Cambrian. Geo Facts. No. 20. Ohio Dept. of Natural Resources. The Geology of Ohio—The Cambrian - DocsLib

Isotopic and geochemical characterization of fossil brines of the Cambrian Mt. Simon Sandstone and Ironton–Galesville Formation from the Illinois Basin, USA. Dana M. Labotka, Samuel V. Panno, Randall A. Locke, Jared T. Freiburg. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta. Volume 165, 15 September 2015, Pages 342-360. Isotopic and geochemical characterization of fossil brines of the Cambrian Mt. Simon Sandstone and Ironton–Galesville Formation from the Illinois Basin, USA - ScienceDirect

Helium in Wyoming. Kelsey S. Kehoe. Wyoming State Geological Survey. Public Information Circular No. 48.  2023. wsgs-2023-pic-48.pdf

Lead-Acid Battery Recycling Facilities with Inadequate Pollution Controls are Poisoning People in Africa: There are Ways to Do It Safely

 

     This post was spurred by a recent article co-published by Grist and The Examination which highlights the dangers to local residents of lead-acid battery recycling facilities operated by Indian companies in several countries in Africa that do not have pollution rules that cover the dangers. Yale Environment 360 published an article on the dangers of lead-acid battery recycling in November 2020. The UN also published a report on the problem in 2020. It has been a serious problem for a couple of decades in Africa. Even with pollution control in place in developed countries, there is still the issue of legacy pollution.

     It is no secret that lead is highly toxic, especially to children. When I was a teen, one time we gathered lead wheel weights from old tires, melted them with acetylene torches and poured them into molds to make sinkers for fishing. Luckily, I didn’t seem to have any lingering effects. Lead is the main contaminant from lead-acid batteries but battery acid, or sulfuric acid is also a contaminant of concern. The average car battery contains 11.5 kg (25.35 lbs) of lead. Indeed, it is the lead that makes batteries so heavy. The pollution from these recycling facilities occurs as air pollution, water pollution, and soil pollution.

     This is not a new problem. Back in 2014, a U.S. company, Dallas, Texas-based RSR Corp., a U.S. operator of secondary lead smelters for battery recycling, complained to the Mexican government about the inadequacies of Mexico’s secondary lead smelting regulations since then about 1 billion pounds of used U.S. car batteries were exported to Mexico for recycling. In response, Mexican regulators did improve regulations, but those efforts did not go far enough. RPS said Mexico should adopt the U.S. EPA standard lead emissions limits of 0.2 mg/m3 and close loopholes, such as those that avoid monitoring the perimeters of the facilities. Thus, we can see that even the U.S. less than a decade ago was basically involved in ‘offshoring’ (in this case just exporting) pollution to countries without equivalent regulations.

     Pollution abatement at these secondary smelters includes treatment of exhaust gases and liquid effluents. Those who work at the plants and those who live very close to them are at the highest risk for exposure. There are means to prevent, assess, and reduce occupational lead exposure including air quality management, medical surveillance of employees, use of protective equipment, and good work hygiene.

     One of the main issues is that unabated lead-acid battery recycling is a profitable business in developing countries, where it prevents the batteries from being disposed of in landfills. Thus, recycling also prevents environmental contamination from disposal. Another issue is that these secondary smelters are often located in populated areas and expose close neighbors to significant pollution. Blacksmith Institute estimates that over 12 million people are affected by lead contamination from the processing of used lead acid batteries in the developing world, with South America, South Asia, and Africa being the most affected regions. These battery recycling operations in developing countries are often small-scale operations that are difficult to regulate. Tracking shipments of used lead-acid batteries from foreign exporters to developing world recycling plants is inadequate, making it difficult to trace batteries going to unauthorized or inadequate facilities. The UN Environment Program’s Basel Convention of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal was implemented in 1992 and regulates the movement of hazardous wastes. The UN suggests voluntary suspension of spent battery exports.

     Some facilities in Africa have been successfully shut down due to documentable pollution harms. Hundreds of children were poisoned in Senegal in West Africa due to their proximity to a battery recycling plant. This happened in 2009. Yale Environment 360 reported that “18 children died in just three months from encephalopathy — toxic lead pollution from a battery recycling plant in a suburb of Dakar had damaged their brains.”

     Testing around operating facilities as well as around legacy facilities often reveals pollution exceeding regulatory limits. Clean-up of a legacy facility in Los Angeles County in California was expected in 2020 to cost $650 million. The project identified 7800 properties around the facility where the soil was contaminated with lead. Cleanup began in 2014 but in 2020 there were still 4600 properties remaining to be remediated.

     According to the International Lead Association, lead batteries are the world’s most recycled consumer product. Indeed, getting the significant “core charge” when replacing one’s spent battery ensures that the batteries will reach a recycling facility of some sort. Of course, lead recycling helps in that it reduces the need for lead mining. The problem is that many small businesses in developing countries know that lead-acid battery recycling can be profitable. My guess is that even with better regulations in place the chance for profit will encourage small companies to break the rules anyway, which is already happening. These operators can buy the batteries at a higher cost. Estimates are that up to half of all batteries end up in this “informal economy” that does not abide by pollution regulations. One major issue is how these operations function. Many will “break open battery cases, spilling acid and lead dust onto the ground, and smelt lead in open-air furnaces that spew toxic fumes and dust that contaminate surrounding neighborhoods.” A 2020 report by UNICEF and Pure Earth notes: “Around 1 in 3 children – up to 800 million globally – has blood lead levels at or above 5 micrograms per decilitre (µg/dL), a level that the World Health Organization and the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention have stated it requires global and regional interventions.” After the problem began to be addressed in India, some of the Indian companies moved operations to Africa, where regulations are inadequate. The degree of lead pollution in soils around these plants in Africa was found to be very high, astounding, in fact. A study focused near plants in Lagos, Nigeria, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, and Tema, Ghana found that average lead contamination in those soils was “23,200 parts per million — 1,000 times natural levels and roughly 100 times U.S. safety levels for soil. The soil was 2 percent lead, with peaks at 14 percent.” This is a problem in Southeast Asia as well. China began taking action after over 100 children were confirmed poisoned by a large recycling facility in 2010. Brazil was able to shut down 80% of its informal battery recyclers via economic incentives. The UNICEF/Pure Earth report suggested there may be as many as 90,000 of these informal recycling plants operating globally. The plants move around but the contamination remains so that there are many more contaminated sites than plants in operation.

     Experts have called these lead-acid battery recycling plants the most polluting industry in the world. The market for battery recycling in Africa is expected to reach $6 billion this decade. Indian battery recycling companies are now among the top polluters in Africa. In Cameroon and the Republic of the Congo, it is thought that regulators are more or less ignoring calls from the local public to stop the pollution. The companies tend to say the pollution is not so bad and that they are complying with all regulations. However, continued soil testing shows that lead levels are still rising, often at over 50 times the U.S. EPA limit. These are from government-authorized companies. Pollution levels from unauthorized companies are likely magnitudes higher as the data in the previous paragraph shows. Even though many plants, both legal and illegal ones, have been shut down, the operations remain. Some are now calling for the Indian government to reign in Indian battery recycling companies in Africa. Just as the Union Carbide disaster that killed 15,000 people in Bhopal, India in 1984 was called a nefarious outsourcing of dangerous pollution to an area with inadequate regulation, so too is the pollution generated by Indian companies in Africa. The minimum requirement of basic filtration between the furnaces and the smoke stacks is often found to be lacking when investigated.

 

 

Lead-Acid Battery Regeneration

     One option is to regenerate spent batteries. Machines that regenerate old batteries are known as desulfators. Batteries become “sulfated” when lead-sulfur deposits form and harden as lead sulfate on the lead plates inside the battery. Battery regeneration uses heat to disulfate the battery, which takes a minimum of 48 hours. This is usually done with short bursts of heat since too much heat can cause the batteries to explode. There are even small battery desulphaters which anyone can buy. I found a small one on Temu for just $16. One might use these for, say, riding mower batteries that can become sulfated during storage in the off-season. Regeneration can prolong the life of the battery significantly. According to Salman Zafar, CEO Bio Energy Consult: “The advantage of battery regeneration over regular recycling is the reduced carbon footprint incurred by mitigating the collecting, packing, shipping and smelting of millions of tonnes of batteries and their cases. Most importantly, it takes about 25kWh of energy to remake a 15Kg, 12V 70Ah battery and just 2.1KWh to regenerate it electronically.”

 

Desulphators Used for Lead-Acid Battery Regeneration. Source: Wikipedia

Portable Desulfator. Source: Temu

Pollution-Free Recycling of Lead and Sulfur Via Vacuum Roasting

     A March 2023 paper in Green Energy and Resources found that there may be a chemical solution to this problem. The researchers found that using sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) as a low-cost, safe, and non-toxic reagent could prevent pollution and significantly reduce carbon emissions compared to smelting at higher temperatures. This new process could be done at about half the operating temperature of smelters, 500 degrees C, vs, 1000 degrees C. The conclusions section of the paper explains and summarizes:

 “The volatilization of lead dust and the release of sulfur oxides are high environmental risks of great concern in the pyrometallurgical recovery of spent LABs. In this study, vacuum roasting was employed to recover the high-risk elements Pb and S in spent LAB lead paste, with low-cost, safe, and non-toxic Na2CO3 as the sole reagent. Multi-component lead compounds, including PbSO4, PbO2, PbO, and Pb can be converted into high-value PbO products at 500 °C and 1 Pa by vacuum reaction with Na2CO3, and S was recovered in the form of Na2SO4·10H2O and Na2SO4. LCA revealed that for recycling 1.0 t of spent LABs, the vacuum roasting process can significantly reduce the carbon footprint (−2.1 × 103 kg CO2 eq), fine particulate matter formation (−6.1 kg PM2.5 eq), and potential toxicity (−1.1 × 103 kg 1,4-DCB), promoting global decarburization. Under the guidance of the twelve principles of green chemistry, this environmentally sound initiative eliminates the potential environmental risks of Pb and S, thus complying with the concept of green chemistry. The designed route can serve as an engineering guidance for the recycling of spent LABs.”

Some slides from the paper are shown below.

 

While I am uncertain about the upfront costs for such a system, the operating costs are bound to be much lower due to the lower operating temperature.  Certainly, the status quo on lead-acid battery recycling in developing countries is unacceptable and more action is needed now to fix this unnecessary problem.

 

References:

Indian companies are bringing one of the world’s most toxic industries to Africa. People are getting sick. Will Fitzgibbon, The Examination. Grist. December 4, 2023. Indian companies are bringing one of the world’s most toxic industries to Africa. People are getting sick. (msn.com)

Pollution-free recycling of lead and sulfur from spent lead-acid batteries via a facile vacuum roasting route. Mengmeng Wang, Quanyin Tan, Jiadong Yu, Dong Xia, Wei Zhang, Cong-Cong Zhang, Zhiyuan Zhang, Junxiong Wang, Kang Liu, and Jinhui Li. Green Energy and Resources. Volume 1, Issue 1, March 2023, 100002. Pollution-free recycling of lead and sulfur from spent lead-acid batteries via a facile vacuum roasting route - ScienceDirect

Getting the Lead Out: Why Battery Recycling Is a Global Health Hazard. Fred Pearce. Yale Environment 360. November 2, 2023. Getting the Lead Out: Why Battery Recycling Is a Global Health Hazard - Yale E360

RSR criticizes Mexican government over secondary lead smelting regulations. Recycling Today. July 1, 2014. RSR criticizes Mexican government over secondary lead smelting regulations - Recycling Today

Recycling of Lead-Acid Batteries in Developing Countries. Sudipta Chakraborty. Bio Energy Consult. April 10, 2023. Recycling of Lead-Acid Batteries in Developing Countries | BioEnergy Consult

Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes. December 9, 2011. Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes | UNEP - UN Environment Programme

Recycling of Lead-Acid Batteries: Perspectives. Salman Zafar. Bio Energy Consult. December 16, 2022. Recycling of Lead-Acid Batteries: Perspectives (bioenergyconsult.com)

Battery Regenerator. Wikipedia. Battery regenerator - Wikipedia

Lead Acid Battery Desulfator 12V 24V 36V 48V Battery Regenerator 2A Auto Pulse Desulfator. Temu. Lead Acid Battery Desulfator 12v 24v 36v 48v Battery Regenerator 2a Auto Pulse Desulfator - Temu

Auditor slams California for Exide cleanup delays, says cost could reach $650 million. Tony Barboza. Los Angeles Times. October 27, 2020. Auditor slams California for Exide cleanup delays - Los Angeles Times (latimes.com)

The toxic truth: Children’s exposure to lead pollution undermines a generation of future potential. UNICEF and Pure Earth. July 2020. The toxic truth | UNICEF

 

Will the Barnett Shale Become a New Midland Basin Play? And Some Other Deep Shale Plays that Are Virtually Untapped

 

     It was in the Barnett Shale in the Fort Worth Basin of Northeast Texas where some of the earliest high-volume hydraulic fracturing was developed, beginning in the late 1990s. Mitchell Energy did the fracture tests. Meanwhile, Devon began drilling horizontal wells in the shale. When the new and bigger fracs were combined with horizontal drilling the shale revolution began. Even after the Barnett became established in the Fort Worth Basin, some were considering testing the much deeper Barnett over in West Texas. Deeper plays can be more prolific, but they are also more expensive to drill and often have other drilling and/or geological hazards. These can range from formations above the target that are difficult to drill or seal off, to high-temperature and high-pressure conditions, to hard to predict localized faulting. While the Fort Worth Barnett is a shale gas play, indications are that the Midland Barnett play is at about 65% liquids. This bodes well, since oil is usually more predictably profitable than natural gas in West Texas.

     Thus far, the Midland Barnett is being tested by big players such as Occidental Petroleum. Diamondback Energy is evaluating the western part of the play into the Central Basin Platform which is non-productive in the Permian-aged reservoirs. Leases need to have sufficient deep rights to be able to drill the deep Barnett. That is not always the case as some companies retain deep rights when leases are sold.

     Economics relative to other plays will determine whether the Midland Barnett play takes off. The play is only about 1000 ft deeper than the deepest Permian reservoir, the Wolfcamp. That should not impede economics much. Enverus recently produced an in-depth report on Midland Basin Barnett potential, I am not a subscriber so I couldn’t see it, but they did offer the following key takeaways from the report:

 

1)     Recent wells targeting the Barnett interval in the Midland Basin show higher oil recoveries and lower breakevens than other secondary zones, according to a new analysis from EIR.

 

2)     Barnett wells drilled in the core of the Midland Basin average slightly higher oil rates than those drilled near its edges.

 

3)     Vertical separation of more than 1,000 feet from the Wolfcamp D makes the Barnett a true inventory expansion opportunity for operators with deep drilling rights regardless of previous shallower development.

 

     Exploration began in earnest in 2019/2020. The section in the Midland Basin area is about 150-200ft thick. A thick section of Barnett also occurs in the Delaware Basin on the other side of the Central Basin Platform and home to much of the Permian production. However, thermal maturity mapping suggests that the Delaware Basin Barnett equivalent would be a dry gas play. It is also 17,000-19,000ft deep in the Delaware Basin where both the Woodford and Barnett shale equivalents are prospective. The Barnett is eroded on some parts of the Central Basin Platform, but some remnants of the section were preserved, as the map below shows. It also thickens along the eastern part of the platform. The Midland play seems to be developed along the thick near the Central Basin Platform. The Atoka zone above the Barnett is also productive. Both zones produce less water than Wolfcamp wells and have great gas pressures, which keep them flowing and delays the need to put pumps on the wells. Thus far, production is not as big as in the Permian reservoirs, but operating costs are lower. The Midland Barnett play will be smaller in areal extent than the Midland Permian plays but there are multiple reservoirs, including the Merimac or Woodford equivalent. Diamondback Energy noted productive wells on “terrace structures” along the boundary of the Midland Basin and the Central Basin Platform, as the slide below shows.  

Source: Diamondback Energy Presentation.

     Geologist Mike Party did a great presentation at Super Basins 2020 on the emerging Midland Barnett play. The slides below are from that presentation.

 

     Pioneer Resources (now part of ExxonMobil) has been dipping into the play and their then CEO Scott Sheffield said back in January 2023 referencing the Midland Barnett: “You’ll see some exciting things in the next couple of years.” Pioneer planned to drill 4 Midland Barnett/Woodford wells in 2023. Operator Elevation Resources was drilling its 47^th well in the play in January. Several others are active in the play. As the play is perfected it seems likely that more wells will be drilled and eventually added to the inventories of these operators.  

 

Other Deep Shale Plays with High Reserves That Have Yet to be Developed and Some That Won’t Be

     Due to the cost increases of drilling deeper wells, there are shale plays in many basins that have yet to be developed. Some could end up being more economical than shallower plays. A few that come to mind are the deep Utica dry gas play in Pennsylvania and parts of West Virginia where initial exploration yielded high-volume gas wells and is having occasional drilling, the deeper Haynesville play in Texas, which is currently being developed, the extension of the Eagle Ford Shale into Mexico, and the Los Molles shale play which sits under the prolific Vaca Muerte shale in the Nequin Basin of Argentina. No doubt, there are several others. New shale pays are being developed in Australia and should be considered in the Indus Basin of Pakistan and Western India. Other shale plays have been more or less abandoned due to the hydrocarbons migrating out or other geological factors that have made the formations less productive than the more prominent shale plays. These plays include the Floyd Shale of Alabama’a Black Warrior Basin, the Fayetteville Shale in Arkansas which was developed in through the early 2010s but is not economic enough at low commodities prices, the Rogersville and Conasauga shales of Kentucky and West Virginia which have not been productive enough, and the Silurian-aged shales of basins in Poland which were also not productive enough. Potential plays in the U.K., France, and in other Eastern European areas are stymied mainly by public opposition so it is not likely that these plays will develop very much. Some plays are being explored in the Middle East and North Africa as well. Finally, as mentioned, the Barnett/Woodford section is prospective for natural gas in the Delaware Basin, but the depths currently make it uneconomic compared to other plays. In addition, there is not a need for more gas in that area.  

 

References:

A Familiar Name is the Next Big Thing in the Permian Shale Bonanza. David Blackmon. Forbes. November 28, 2023. A Familiar Name Is The Next Big Thing In The Permian Shale Bonanza (forbes.com)

The Barnett bonanza is coming: In-depth analysis explores promising potential within the Midland Basin. Enverus. November 7, 2023. The Barnett bonanza is coming | Enverus

Mike Party - Permian Basin: Barnett Shale Play Emerges. Super Basins 2020 Sugar Land, Texas. Mike Party - Permian Basin: Barnett Shale Play Emerges (aapg.org)

Barnett Shale targeted as Permian operators move into new plays. Mella McEwen. January 20, 2023. Midland Reporter Telegram. Barnett Shale targeted as Permian Basin operators move into new plays (mrt.com)